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ABSTRACT We study the properties of cosmic-ray (CR) driven galactic winds from the warm interstellar medium using idealized spherically symmetric time-dependent simulations. The key ingredients in the model are radiative cooling and CR-streaming-mediated heating of the gas. Cooling and CR heating balance near the base of the wind, but this equilibrium is thermally unstable, leading to a multiphase wind with large fluctuations in density and temperature. In most of our simulations, the heating eventually overwhelms cooling, leading to a rapid increase in temperature and a thermally driven wind; the exception to this is in galaxies with the shallowest potentials, which produce nearly isothermal $$T \approx 10^4\,$$ K winds driven by CR pressure. Many of the time-averaged wind solutions found here have a remarkable critical point structure, with two critical points. Scaled to real galaxies, we find mass outflow rates $$\dot{M}$$ somewhat larger than the observed star-formation rate in low-mass galaxies, and an approximately ‘energy-like’ scaling $$\dot{M} \propto v_{\rm esc}^{-2}$$. The winds accelerate slowly and reach asymptotic wind speeds of only ∼0.4vesc. The total wind power is $$\sim 1~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$$ of the power from supernovae, suggesting inefficient preventive CR feedback for the physical conditions modelled here. We predict significant spatially extended emission and absorption lines from 104–105.5 K gas; this may correspond to extraplanar diffuse ionized gas seen in star-forming galaxies. 

Abstract Observations indicate that turbulent motions are present on most massive star surfaces. Starting from the observed phenomena of spectral lines with widths that are much larger than their thermal broadening (e.g., micro- and macroturbulence), and considering the detection of stochastic low-frequency variability (SLFV) in the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite photometry, these stars clearly have large-scale turbulent motions on their surfaces. The cause of this turbulence is debated, with near-surface convection zones, core internal gravity waves, and wind variability being proposed. Our 3D gray radiation hydrodynamic (RHD) models previously characterized the convective dynamics of the surfaces, driven by near-surface convection zones, and provided reasonable matches to the observed SLFV of the most luminous massive stars. We now explore the complex emitting surfaces of these 3D RHD models, which strongly violate the 1D assumption of a plane-parallel atmosphere. By post-processing the gray RHD models with the Monte Carlo radiation transport code Sedona , we synthesize stellar spectra and extract information from the broadening of individual photospheric lines. The use of Sedona enables the calculation of the viewing angle and temporal dependence of spectral absorption line profiles. By combining uncorrelated temporal snapshots together, we compare the turbulent broadening from the 3D RHD models to the thermal broadening of the extended emitting region, showing that our synthesized spectral lines closely resemble the observed macroturbulent broadening from similarly luminous stars. More generally, the new techniques that we have developed will allow for systematic studies of the origins of turbulent velocity broadening from any future 3D simulations. 

Abstract We study the propagation of mildly relativistic cosmic rays (CRs) in multiphase interstellar medium environments with conditions typical of nearby disk galaxies. We employ the techniques developed in Armillotta et al. to postprocess three high-resolution TIGRESS magnetohydrodynamic simulations modeling local patches of star-forming galactic disks. Together, the three simulations cover a wide range of gas surface density, gravitational potential, and star formation rate (SFR). Our prescription for CR propagation includes the effects of advection by the background gas, streaming along the magnetic field at the local ion Alfvén speed, and diffusion relative to the Alfvén waves, with the diffusion coefficient set by the balance between streaming-driven Alfvén wave excitation and damping mediated by local gas properties. We find that the combined transport processes are more effective in environments with higher SFR. These environments are characterized by higher-velocity hot outflows (created by clustered supernovae) that rapidly advect CRs away from the galactic plane. As a consequence, the ratio of midplane CR pressure to midplane gas pressures decreases with increasing SFR. We also use the postprocessed simulations to make predictions regarding the potential dynamical impacts of CRs. The relatively flat CR pressure profiles near the midplane argue that they would not provide significant support against gravity for most of the ISM mass. However, the CR pressure gradients are larger than the other pressure gradients in the extraplanar region (∣ z ∣ > 0.5 kpc), suggesting that CRs may affect the dynamics of galactic fountains and/or winds. The degree of this impact is expected to increase in environments with lower SFR. 

ABSTRACT Recently, cosmic rays (CRs) have emerged as a leading candidate for driving galactic winds. Small-scale processes can dramatically affect global wind properties. We run two-moment simulations of CR streaming to study how sound waves are driven unstable by phase-shifted CR forces and CR heating. We verify linear theory growth rates. As the sound waves grow non-linear, they steepen into a quasi-periodic series of propagating shocks; the density jumps at shocks create CR bottlenecks. The depth of a propagating bottleneck depends on both the density jump and its velocity; ΔPc is smaller for rapidly moving bottlenecks. A series of bottlenecks creates a CR staircase structure, which can be understood from a convex hull construction. The system reaches a steady state between growth of new perturbations, and stair mergers. CRs are decoupled at plateaus, but exert intense forces and heating at stair jumps. The absence of CR heating at plateaus leads to cooling, strong gas pressure gradients and further shocks. If bottlenecks are stationary, they can drastically modify global flows; if their propagation times are comparable to dynamical times, their effects on global momentum and energy transfer are modest. The CR acoustic instability is likely relevant in thermal interfaces between cold and hot gas, as well as galactic winds. Similar to increased opacity in radiative flows, the build-up of CR pressure due to bottlenecks can significantly increase mass outflow rates, by up to an order of magnitude. It seeds unusual forms of thermal instability, and the shocks could have distinct observational signatures, on ∼kpc scales. 

Abstract Increasing main-sequence stellar luminosity with stellar mass leads to the eventual dominance of radiation pressure in stellar-envelope hydrostatic balance. As the luminosity approaches the Eddington limit, additional instabilities (beyond conventional convection) can occur. These instabilities readily manifest in the outer envelopes of OB stars, where the opacity increase associated with iron yields density and gas-pressure inversions in 1D models. Additionally, recent photometric surveys (e.g., TESS) have detected excess broadband low-frequency variability in power spectra of OB star lightcurves, called stochastic low-frequency variability (SLFV). This motivates our novel 3D Athena++ radiation hydrodynamical (RHD) simulations of two 35 M ⊙ star envelopes (the outer ≈15% of the stellar radial extent), one on the zero-age main sequence and the other in the middle of the main sequence. Both models exhibit turbulent motion far above and below the conventional iron-opacity peak convection zone (FeCZ), obliterating any “quiet” part of the near-surface region and leading to velocities at the photosphere of 10–100 km s −1 , directly agreeing with spectroscopic data. Surface turbulence also produces SLFV in model lightcurves with amplitudes and power-law slopes that are strikingly similar to those of observed stars. The characteristic frequencies associated with SLFV in our models are comparable to the thermal time in the FeCZ (≈3–7 day −1 ). These ab initio simulations are directly validated by observations and, though more models are needed, we remain optimistic that 3D RHD models of main-sequence O-star envelopes exhibit SLFV originating from the FeCZ. 

Abstract Cosmic-ray transport on galactic scales depends on the detailed properties of the magnetized, multiphase interstellar medium (ISM). In this work, we postprocess a high-resolution TIGRESS magnetohydrodynamic simulation modeling a local galactic disk patch with a two-moment fluid algorithm for cosmic-ray transport. We consider a variety of prescriptions for the cosmic rays, from a simple, purely diffusive formalism with constant scattering coefficient, to a physically motivated model in which the scattering coefficient is set by the critical balance between streaming-driven Alfvén wave excitation and damping mediated by local gas properties. We separately focus on cosmic rays with kinetic energies of ∼1 GeV (high-energy) and ∼30 MeV (low energy), respectively important for ISM dynamics and chemistry. We find that simultaneously accounting for advection, streaming, and diffusion of cosmic rays is crucial for properly modeling their transport. Advection dominates in the high-velocity, low-density hot phase, while diffusion and streaming are more important in higher-density, cooler phases. Our physically motivated model shows that there is no single diffusivity for cosmic-ray transport: the scattering coefficient varies by four or more orders of magnitude, maximal at density n H ∼ 0.01 cm −3 . The ion-neutral damping of Alfvén waves results in strong diffusion and nearly uniform cosmic-ray pressure within most of the mass of the ISM. However, cosmic rays are trapped near the disk midplane by the higher scattering rate in the surrounding lower-density, higher-ionization gas. The transport of high-energy cosmic rays differs from that of low-energy cosmic rays, with less effective diffusion and greater energy losses for the latter. 

ABSTRACT The core accretion model of giant planet formation has been challenged by the discovery of recycling flows between the planetary envelope and the disc that can slow or stall envelope accretion. We carry out 3D radiation hydrodynamic simulations with an updated opacity compilation to model the proto-Jupiter’s envelope. To isolate the 3D effects of convection and recycling, we simulate both isolated spherical envelopes and envelopes embedded in discs. The envelopes are heated at given rates to achieve steady states, enabling comparisons with 1D models. We vary envelope properties to obtain both radiative and convective solutions. Using a passive scalar, we observe significant mass recycling on the orbital time-scale. For a radiative envelope, recycling can only penetrate from the disc surface until ∼0.1–0.2 planetary Hill radii, while for a convective envelope, the convective motion can ‘dredge up’ the deeper part of the envelope so that the entire convective envelope is recycled efficiently. This recycling, however, has only limited effects on the envelopes’ thermal structure. The radiative envelope embedded in the disc has identical structure as the isolated envelope. The convective envelope has a slightly higher density when it is embedded in the disc. We introduce a modified 1D approach which can fully reproduce our 3D simulations. With our updated opacity and 1D model, we recompute Jupiter’s envelope accretion with a 10 M⊕ core, and the time-scale to runaway accretion is shorter than the disc lifetime as in prior studies. Finally, we discuss the implications of the efficient recycling on the observed chemical abundances of the planetary atmosphere (especially for super-Earths and mini-Neptunes). 

ABSTRACT FU Ori is the prototype of FU Orionis systems that are outbursting protoplanetary discs. Magnetic fields in FU Ori’s accretion discs have previously been detected using spectropolarimetry observations for Zeeman effects. We carry out global radiation ideal MHD simulations to study FU Ori’s inner accretion disc. We find that (1) when the disc is threaded by vertical magnetic fields, most accretion occurs in the magnetically dominated atmosphere at z ∼ R, similar to the ‘surface accretion’ mechanism in previous locally isothermal MHD simulations. (2) A moderate disc wind is launched in the vertical field simulations with a terminal speed of ∼300–500 km s−1 and a mass-loss rate of 1–10 per cent the disc accretion rate, which is consistent with observations. Disc wind fails to be launched in simulations with net toroidal magnetic fields. (3) The disc photosphere at the unit optical depth can be either in the wind launching region or the accreting surface region. Magnetic fields have drastically different directions and magnitudes between these two regions. Our fiducial model agrees with previous optical Zeeman observations regarding both the field directions and magnitudes. On the other hand, simulations indicate that future Zeeman observations at near-IR wavelengths or towards other FU Orionis systems may reveal very different magnetic field structures. (4) Due to energy loss by the disc wind, the disc photosphere temperature is lower than that predicted by the thin disc theory, and the previously inferred disc accretion rate may be lower than the real accretion rate by a factor of ∼2–3.